Final Paper
Egyptian Composers of European-Inspired Art Music: An “International Musical Language”
Patrick Smith
In understanding the boundaries of the Arab world it is important to recognize the degree of interaction that the rest of the world has had and continues to have with those who are commonly defined as being Arab. Egypt presents itself as a perfect example of this interaction with that which is popularly presented as being non-Arab or non-Egyptian, European and Western culture. Throughout colonial and post-colonial interaction with elements of culture that are often connected with the continent of Europe, Egypt has carried elements of foreign culture along with it into modernity. These interactions have greatly impacted Egyptians’ perceptions of themselves as a people and as members of the larger Arab world. Over time it seems that these interactions have contributed to Arabs’ sense of what it means to be Arab in an increasingly interconnected world. Understanding the ways in which individuals themselves make sense of this historical interaction with “foreign” culture throughout history reveals a conglomeration of identities that are often represented through art and politics.
The reality of European inspired music in Egypt provides a perfect example of this interaction. Throughout Egypt’s long domination by British colonial powers Egyptians have been exposed to European art music. As a result of education institutions established by Westernized Egyptian governments, Egyptian musicians were trained and exposed to Western music theory and composers and were trained in instruments such as the violin and the piano. Four generations of European inspired Egyptian art music composers have practiced art music composition since the establishment of these educational institutions. Their compositions as well as discourse surrounding their compositions and respective performances illuminate the negotiation of a multiplicity of identities and clear distinctions between the different generations of composers. The widespread use of the Internet by contemporary musicians, composers and critics as a means to reflect upon this type of music as well as critique it provides a view into discourse and perceptions of what European inspired Egyptian art music means to people in Egypt today.
European inspired Egyptian art music can be perceived as a unique strand of art music in the Arab world due to trends in the composers’ training and background as well as the resulting forms of the music. The general concept of art music is well ingrained in the musical culture of the Arab world. Scholars frequently note a distinct strain of urban art music centered around the takht ensemble (Marcus 2007) often associated with the concept of tarab or the heightened “emotional state aroused in listeners as a result of the dynamic interplay between the performer, the music, song lyrics, the audience, and certain other factors” (Shannon 2008, 75) such as the movement within the Arab system of modes, the maqam. The trend of art music composition that I am describing here is distinctly different from more common strands of art music present throughout the Arab world despite the fact that many of the composers that I will discuss here grew up with the knowledge of the maqam and tarab-inducing art music alongside knowledge of Western music. The primary difference in the case of European inspired art music is the Western music training of these composers.
Trends of training musicians in Western music began during the mid-nineteenth century. Initially, the demand for Western art music in Egypt came from the large number of Europeans living in the country. The initial founding of music schools came about during the reign of Muhammad Ali in the first half of the nineteenth century during a governmental movement towards Westernization and modernization (Salwa 1985, 143-144). These initial musical institutions primarily provided instrumentalists for military bands, but over time musicians began to leave the military bands and join symphonies and other ensembles throughout the urban Western musical centers of Cairo and Alexandria (Salwa 1985, 144). The establishment of numerous institutions over the next century featured as the training ground for musicians and centers for Western music performance. Institutions such as the Cairo Opera House (established in 1869), the Cairo Symphony Orchestra (established in 1934, initially as a part of Egyptian State Radio) and numerous conservatories such as the Cairo National Conservatory served as the training grounds for the first generation of art music composers (Salwa 1985, 144-145). Further actions by the government throughout the twentieth century further ingrained Western music into major Egyptian urban centers such as Cairo and Alexandria. In 1932 the Committee on Musical Education emphasized the importance of an equal division in training of Western and Arab music in Egyptian public schools. This committee also took part in the founding of a number of different music teacher training institutes particularly designed to produce Egyptian music teachers who could replace the current prevalence of Europeans music institute and conservatory positions (El-Shawan 1980, 99-100). The Egyptian government was fundamental in establishing Western art music as a central part of Egyptian life. The establishment of the Ministry of Culture in 1958 brought about continued openness to music and culture from outside of Egypt. This is most evident in the ministry’s support of Egyptian students in studies of Western art music in European countries (El-Salwa 103-104). From this historical progression it becomes evident that Western musical education initially became prevalent in Egypt through governmental desires for progress and Westernization. The continuing prevalence of this Western music education emphasis created an environment that exposed many young Egyptians to Western art music, resulting in the first generations of art music composers. This can be perceived as a contrast with other art music composition traditions in the colonial world such as in Ghana where initial exposure to Western music came through the missionary church hymn (Euba 2001).
Trends can be noted within the three generations of Egyptian art music composers as well as in those with similar university training and musical backgrounds. Salwa describes trends within the first generation of composers who originated in the educational environment described above. He notes that the first generation including Yusif Greis and Abu Bakr Khairat are linked together by their private Western musical training with European teachers in Cairo as well a commonality in living primarily on their independent wealth due to the lack of an Egyptian audience for their music (Salwa 1985, 145-146). This description makes it evident how significant a role the presence of European teachers and musicians had in the lives of these composers. The manners in which this generation employs musical materials that can be traced to Egypt differs greatly between the composers. El-Kholy presents Khairat as being a nationalistic composer due to the ways in which he employs folk and modal material in his compositions (El-Kholy, “Khairat…”). In contrast, he explains that Greiss didn’t use folk material in his compositions but is still perceived as being patriotic due to the ways in which he commemorates the 1919 Revolution in his symphonic poem Ma?r (El-Kholy, “Greiss…”). El-Kholy seems to have a distinct desire to present members of this first generation of composers as nationalistic. Nationalistic presentations by scholars of Arab Music as described above should be recognized in terms of their subjective interpretive nature. However, they illuminate one way of perceiving the compositions by this generation of composers. In addition, references to nationalism are not uncommon when composers are perceived as using traditional or folk material. Such interpretations can be aligned with European composers such as Bartok who is sometimes presented as being a nationalistic Hungarian composer (Dreisziger 2005). However, it remains open to questioning whether or not these composers actually perceived themselves as being nationalistic.
There seems to be a significant amount of disagreement around this time concerning the role of the music of this generation. In 1952 a music critic said about music such as that which comes from this first generation, "Those who describe music as being oriental at times and Western at other times are mistaken. Music is the language which is known by all peoples without any differentiation between East and West” (Anonymous 1952, 12 quoted in Salwa 1985, 146). This emphasis upon music as an international language continues in future discussions of Egyptian art music as well. This is in distinct disagreement with El-Kholy who seems to strive to present the music of the first generation of composers as nationalistic. However, it is possible that El-Kholy’s perception of Egypt does not necessarily involve a distinction between “East and West.”
In discussing the second generation of composers including Gamal Al-Rahim and Aziz El-Shawan, Salwa notes similar trends such as receiving private musical training in Cairo (likely as a result of now well-established institutions such as the Cairo National Conservatory and the Cairo Symphony Orchestra), and coming from middle class backgrounds, a contrast with the first generation of independently wealthy composers (Salwa 1985, 149-150). The musical trends within this generation of composers demonstrate the important role of studying abroad in places such as Europe in the ways in which an individual’s composition style is developed. El-Kholy explains that El-Shawan studied with Khatchaturian in the USSR after previous extensive involvement with other Soviet composers during a previous trip and that his compositions therefore developed a “richly chromatic” character (El-Kholy, “El-Shawan…). This can be contrasted with Gamal Abdel-Rahim who studied in Germany with one of Hindemith’s students and returned to teach and compose at various musical institutions in Cairo. Abdel-Rahim’s music is often characterized as being distinctly Egyptian due to his frequent use of Arab modes incorporating quarter-tones (Sadoh 2004, 656; El-Kholy, “Abdel…”) and the portrayal of a number of aspects of Egyptian life including the Pharaonic era in his ballet Osiris and urban life in some of his orchestral works (El Kholy, “Abdel…”). From these two examples it becomes evident that Egyptian composers of this generation vary greatly in terms of the musical elements that are included in their works. El-Shawan’s musical output with its “richly chromatic” characteristics seems to have been influenced by his extensive involvement with Soviet composers during his two stays in the USSR.
Trends such as these seem to be summed up in El-Shawan’s own words describing that he perceived Western music, “not as an alien element, but rather as an international musical language” (El-Kholy, “El-Shawan…”). He seems to not demonstrate concerns pertaining to the specific identity or geo-cultural origins of elements in his music. Instead, El-Shawan can be seen as perceiving his exposure to music in Egypt as well as the USSR as all a part of “the international musical language” unconnected to particular locations. However, similar to Abdel-Rahim, El-Shawan has also incorporated Pharaonic subjects into his works, demonstrating a continuing desire to include elements of historical Egypt in contemporary compositions (El-Dabh 1981, 17). Such trends in referencing historic Egypt in compositions of art music continue in the following generations of composers as well. Such an analysis points to a variety of composition styles and subjects in the second generation that situate topics of Egyptian identity next to claims of an “international musical language.” One can hypothesize that the time spent abroad in the instances described above influenced the ways in which the composers perceived their music.
The unique life of Halim El-Dabh further demonstrates trends of engaging with musical trends from outside Egypt within this second generation of composers. El-Dabh began his studies in Cairo but his further university education also included numerous prominent music schools and conservatories in the United States as well as Ethiopia. His extensive ethnomusicological research throughout Africa and interactions around the world are evident in explorations of African pianism and in compositions such as his “Symphony for 1000 Drums” that “invokes the goddesses of ancient Egypt and Yorubaland” (“The official…”). Such compositions are significant for the ways that they draw together influences from around Africa, not just from Egypt and the Arab World. Despite his Egyptian origins, El-Dabh is sometimes grouped in with other African composers (Sadoh 2004) bringing up potential Pan-African associations with his music. This goes to show how well-known and socially connected he is outside of Egypt and the degree with which Egyptian composers such as himself engage with musical trends from around Africa and other parts of the world. El-Dabh’s numerous personal connections with composers and scholars around the world show the coming of a new era in Egyptian art music composition characterized by increased engagement with international musical resources and compositional trends.
Members of the third generation of Egyptian art music composers were born in the 1940s and 50s and have continued this trend of engaging with “international music.” This can perhaps be related to the fact that each of them went overseas for university studies at some point during their careers. Many of these composers devote much of their time towards writing for films. In discussing the fluid boundaries and interactions between different domains of music in Cairo, Racy notes the importance of media such as films in the careers of nearly all of the major musicians in the country (Racy 1981, 6). By analyzing the lives of these younger generations it becomes apparent that this trend has extended into the realm of art music composition as well. Mauna Ghoneim, Gamal Salama and Rageh Daoud have all composed scores for numerous films including Mauna Ghoneim’s award winning composition for the documentary film An Evening’s Fishing in 1991 (Kerim, “Ghoneim…”). One can speculate that this is a major source of employment for this third generation of composers. The emphasis on compositions for films seems to be especially significant considering online accounts that the audience for Egyptian art music in Egypt is fairly limited aside from specific festivals emphasizing this music (Catta 2003). It seems that compositions for the film industry could potentially be a source of income for these composers.
The fourth and youngest generation of art music composers, generally born in the 1970s, in Egypt is beginning to engage with global trends in contemporary music composition more than other generations have. According to online accounts of their lives and works, many of these composers are students of the third generation (particularly Rageh Daoud) as described above. Very little has been written on this youngest generation possibly due to the fact that they seem to be more involved with contemporary flows of composition than with the indigenization of European inspired music in Egypt, but their names and life stories are contained in numerous online blogs and intercultural composition and networking websites. Here I will discuss three members of this youngest generation, Nahla Mattar, Wael Samy and Bassam Nour-Eddien, according to their online presentations. The website “Intercultural Composers Initiative” provides short life backgrounds and lists of compositions for these composers as well as other composers from around the world. Perhaps most significantly, it lists them together with a total of eight composers from various places around the world including the Ghanaian composer Senyo Adzei, a member of the third generation of composers in that country. Associations such as this seem to group these young composers from around the world into the single category of being “intercultural” composers. A term such as “intercultural” groups all of these composers together into a single category irrespective of their nation or culture of birth despite the fact that these personal details are provided on the website. This website seems to act as a connection between composers from a variety of backgrounds, emphasizing their international network alongside their local origins.
According to this website, this youngest generation of Egyptian composers can be characterized by extensive associations with countries around the Middle East and other parts of the world. Both Nour-Eddien and Samy were respectively born in Kuwait and Dubai but studied under Rageh Daoud, an Egyptian composer of the third generation as discussed above and received part of their education from musical institutes or conservatories in Cairo (“Intercultural Composers Initiative”). This is significant since it seems that these non-native Egyptians received at least part of their musical training in Cairo, not in their respective countries. Such information reinforces the idea that Egypt continues to be a center for art music education in the Arab World. This also challenges the concept of a monolithic view of Egyptian art music composition since it seems that the composers who have taken part in education at Egyptian conservatories are not entirely Egyptian.
Perspectives from composers in reflecting upon the larger art music composition scene in Egypt are also illustrative of discourse pertaining to identities surrounding this type of music. On her blog Nahla Mattar, a member of the most recent generation, explains the results of sending Egyptians to study composition abroad in Europe. She explains:
“The result was a combination, of at least two musical cultures; the western and the local. This combination succeeded at times, and fails at others; yet, the common interest in all focused around the fascination with the sound as an independent entity, far from the well-ornamented melodies, or even the sensual sequences of the rhythmic cycles known in the tradition of these local cultures. Accordingly, music is the organization of sound over time, regardless of the sound identity used” (Mattar, “Nahla Mattar”).
Mattar, who received her doctorate from Arizona State University, reflects upon the situation of composers in the post-colonial world who employ compositional techniques that first existed in the West and combined them with the “local” or their respective cultural origins. However, she goes beyond this to look at composition as detached from its “sound identity,” from its cultural origins, to look at sound as something in and of itself, without any identity or cultural background. Despite this, at other times she presents other composers within the third generation such as Mauna Ghoneim as exhibiting the “assimilation of both Western and Egyptian elements” (Mattar 2006). Discourse such as this demonstrates a tendency to continue to identify the socio-cultural origins of elements in Egyptian art music compositions while asserting the independence of sound from certain identities. Mattar’s CV, available through her website, provides a view into her eclectic interests as a professor, researcher and composer in Egypt, describing her research and experimentation with music technology and sound programming as well as teaching “Music Composition Inspired by the Ancient Egyptian Heritage” as a part of the National Project for the Revival of Ancient Egyptian Music (Mattar, “CV”). Her involvement with this project on ancient Egyptian music can be related to similar interests in members of the second generation of composers in exploring Pharaonic subjects through composition. It seems that trends in employing themes from Egyptian history is common in at least these two generations of composers. Further research would be necessary to understand the ways in which Mattar perceives herself amidst these broad interests. However, it becomes clear that her interests are not entirely in the realm of indigenizing Western forms of art music composition as presented by other art music composers in the colonial world such as Akin Euba (Euba 2001).
Critical music discourse surrounding live performances of Egyptian art music today reveals public attitudes towards this type of music and specific composers. In addition, analysis of concert programs and concert reviews of ensembles such as the Cairo Symphony Orchestra reveal these attitudes as well. Online portrayals and discussions around the “Arab Perspectives Music Festival” founded in 2002 (Catta 2006) are revealing about the attitudes towards Egyptian composers today. The Cairo Symphony Orchestra website explains, “The Cairo Symphony Orchestra has played a crucial role in the development of Egyptian contemporary music and in the inspiration of Egyptian musicians-soloists and conductors alike” (“Cairo Symphony Orchestra”). This self-advertisement is placed next to long lists of Egyptian and world-renowned soloists as well as the repertoire of the orchestra featuring composers from the traditional Western art music canon. An online review of the 2006 festival explains that the event was initially created in order to provide an audience for contemporary Egyptian and Arab composers (Catta 2006). According to the review, this was a switch from the previous weekly emphasis under conductor Youssef El-Sisi who regularly had the works of just Egyptian composers performed on a regular basis (Catta 2002). Evidently, within the history of the Arab Perspectives Festival there is a trend of including composers from outside of Egypt in this festival. The author of this article seems to express distaste with the inclusion of composers from around the Arab world at the expense of certain other composers. In addition, the author of these reviews, Amal Choucri Catta, seems to express distaste at the inclusion of composers who emphasize “folkloric songs” over symphonic works, which, according to Catta would be more deserving of such a performance opportunity (Catta 2003). Considering the fact, as discussed previously, that many of these Egyptian composers incorporate elements of traditional Egyptian music in their works, this comment points to the idea that a certain adherence to common forms of Western art music composition is viewed in a positive manner by some members of the audience for this music.
The analysis of reviews of performances and interpretations of compositions serve as a means to understand the meaning of these works for the contemporary Egyptian public. A review of a performance incorporating the works of Rageh Daoud illuminates the reviewer’s perception of these compositions:
“The concert took a decided turn for the better when they gave four pieces for orchestra by the Egyptian composer Ragueh Daoud. He is a composer who, having listened to what is going on outside Egypt, weighing and sifting the results with conditions here, has come to a sound system of his own which is contemporary and in touch with musical composition on the international circuit, but relevant to the special needs of public performances existing in Egypt” (Blake 1998).
This review of a performance by the Cairo Opera Orchestra is significant because the author presents Daoud as a composer who is in touch with “contemporary” trends in the “international” composition circuit. In this instance the author does not bring up the dichotomy of “Western” and “local” that is sometimes presented in describing music in post-colonial societies, not excluding the case of Egypt (Nattar 2006; Sadoh 2004.) Instead he explains how Daoud balances flows of compositional practices on the “international circuit” with the special situation of the performance of this type of music in Egypt.
However, what are these “special needs of public performances existing in Egypt?” In discussing “intercultural” African art music, Ghanaian scholar Kwabena Nketia speaks of the need for creative contemporary composers to use “traditional” elements from the past to focus upon the needs of the audience, to “[develop] channels of communication and musical codes that can be understood by the receptors of music…” (Nketia 1982, 83). Nketia is discussing elements of the past that can be reused in contemporary contexts, but his focus is primarily on intercultural music and that ways in which past “tradition” is made relevant to the audience at a performance. Similarly, Nigerian composer and scholar Akin Euba asserts the need for African composers to develop a voice that “speaks to Africans” (Euba 2001, 119). Comparisons such as this bring light to trends within art music composition within ex-colonies around the world, trends in composing in a manner that relates with the audience connected to the composer’s origins. This certainly applies to Egyptian concert reviews as presented above since the author of this review goes on to explain what makes the music relevant to Egypt. He explains that Daoud’s pieces performed at this concert “beat along, dark and often dusty meditations with metallic light flashes -- very Cairo. There is buzz and crowded frustration. Something is out there to get you -- and it's not a car” (Blake 1998). It seems that in this example musical imagery of Cairo with its “buzz and crowded frustration” is something that audiences can appreciate and relate to in the music. As presented in this review the Egyptian element in these works takes the form of familiar Cairo sounds, imagery and story lines as opposed to the employment of certain notably Arab/Egyptian musical elements such as the maqam. It becomes apparent that elements of Egypt are perceived to be incorporated into compositions beyond the mere inclusion of purely musical features such as rhythm and melody.
From this study trends within the conglomeration of problematic identities associated with European-inspired Egyptian art music become evident. Ideas such as the situation of this music in between terms such as “East and West” and “local and global” persist amidst discourse pertaining to this subject. In addition, associating works with Egyptian elements such as a perceived connection with a historical past have persisted throughout many generations of composers. However, throughout the history of this art music tradition many composers have leaned towards describing their music in global terms such as “international.” This movement towards thinking of this type of music as “international” is particularly evident in composer discourse and websites such as the “Intercultural Composers Initiative” prevalently used by the youngest generation of composers.
Further research on this topic would benefit from interviews with the youngest generation of composers in order to understand how they present themselves and their music in their own words. This would allow for a more in depth understanding of why they compose and what they hope to achieve through their compositions. However, in this instance, an online perspective as presented in this paper in the case of the youngest generation of composers provides an overview of their backgrounds as well as the ways that they present themselves through various online communication mediums.
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