Katrina Campos paper
Political Involvement Affecting Identity Issues
It is more difficult for a musician to achieve international and global recognition in the twentieth century. As the world gets smaller due to technology and transportation, new musical resources and inspirations are harder to find. Globalization does not aid in this process for nothing seems musically unique anymore, especially with constant migrations and numerous media that is available. Is it true that not one single source of inspiration can reach a multitude of people? The answer is no. When used in music, this source can unite those in its audience; breaking territorial and cultural boundaries. This source is politics. One can see, even in our recent times that those musicians who are politically involved do gain more recognition. As this research intends to portray an aspect of Arab music, this paper will specifically focus on two Arab musicians who have had political involvement. Umm Kulthum and Marcel Khalife are from very different times, yet also alike that both musicians have used political ideas and protest in their music. Both of their respective countries, Egypt and Lebanon, have also experienced and endured a number of colonialists that cause their identity’s change. How then is their political involvement of these artists relevant to their recognition in their countries?
History of Foreign Rule
Looking back at Lebanon’s history, one finds a country that has survived rule over many different “authorities”. The Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Ottomans and the French have all contributed to the present culture and identity of Lebanon. (History of Lebanon, 2008) Unfortunately, modern Lebanon is still subject to foreign rule a couple of decades ago against Syria and Israel. As a result, it has left its people politically dissatisfied in a politically unstable country. It is ironic because Lebanon is considered to be the most democratic out of all Arab countries and for a time, is named the Switzerland of the East. (Switzerland of the East, 2005) Today, Lebanon struggles to regain stability and to find a new identity. Much in the same way, Egypt has also persisted under foreign rule. In this case, it is the Persians, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Ottomans, the French and the British who have contributed to what Egypt is today. (History of modern Egypt, 2008) Though this is so, it is not after the end of the British occupation that Egypt has started to rule itself. For the most part of the twentieth century, Egypt is free from foreign rule. (History of modern Egypt, 2008) From then on, Egypt has been internally changing to remould itself to be the country for its people.
The Artists in Political Context
At the commencement of Umm Kulthum’s musical career, Egypt has reached some form of stability when it is declared by the British as an independent state. Umm Kulthum’s first song by al-Najridi, Ma li futint (Mashriq, 1996), is documented to have been released approximately between 1924 and 1925 with no political inclinations. During this time, the Egyptian government consisted of the monarch King Fuad, who is under heavy supervision by the British authorities. This prosperity did not last long because the people of Egypt are beginning to be dissatisfied. (History of modern Egypt, 2008) Questions have arisen as to their true intentions in Egypt because of King Fuad’s installation by the British. It seems that the British are monitoring and controlling the country behind an Egyptian ruler. At this time, Umm Kulthum’s musical career did not see success. It is not until a decade later where one can see her on the musical and the political stage. Umm Kulthum’s public success started to increase in 1932 where she started to tour parts of the Arab world. (Umm Kulthum, 2008) Her political involvement is becoming apparent as well when she sings for the heir of King Fuad, King Farouk. (Goldman, 2007) Her success finally reaches national and later, international recognition through the aid of Gamal Abdel Nasser, who later becomes the president of Egypt. (Umm Kulthum, 2008) This partnership becomes the perfect weapon for the insurance of Nasser’s new socialist government and Umm Kulthum’s success and fame. It is a well suited combination, for Nasser sees in Umm Kulthum an Egyptian figure that can unite people and Umm Kulthum sees in Nasser a leader who can take Egypt forward to the modern times. This partnership between umm Kulthum and Gamal Abdel Nasser is crucial for the reason that Egypt’s political status is again unstable with the dismissal of its British occupants and colonizers. (History of modern Egypt, 2008) Umm Kulthum’s repertoire included those that openly support the Egyptian independence seen in Sa’alu Qalbi by Riad al-Sunbat in 1946. (Mashriq, 1996) She also shows her support of Nasser through her song, Wallahi zaman ya sillahi (It's Been a Long Time, Oh Weapon of Mine) in 1956 by Kamal al-Tawil (Mashriq, 1996), which becomes Egypt’s national anthem during the reign of Nasser. From here on, Umm Kulthum’s becomes synonymous to Nasser’s political speeches as they follow immediately after Umm Kulthum’s songs on the radio. (Danielson, 1997) Her support for her country is shown to the world when Egypt experiences a massive defeat against Israel during the six day war. As a result, Umm Kulthum toured all over the Arab world, North Africa, and some European countries to raise funds to re-arm the Egyptian army, using her fame and talents to help her country. (Goldman, 2007) It is noted that at these tour that Umm Kulthum recognition pushes beyond the boundaries of the Arab world and into the international stage. Not only that, more of the international audience see her dedication and pride for her country. Umm Kulthum stays a true Egyptian patriot by using her voice and music to uplift and strengthen her country until the end of Nasser’s rule. Ironically enough, Umm Kulthum dies just four years after Nasser’s death, which marks the end of their partnership.
Marcel Khalife, although commences his musical career much later than Umm Kulthum’s, he is also renowned for his political involvement as a musician. Not much is known about his public musical performances until 1970 when Marcel Khalife is still a teacher at the Conservatory of Beirut. (Marcel Khalife, 2008) Like Umm Kulthum, he starts his career in a country that has been free from foreign rule. Similarly, this peacefulness does not last long and it only takes a couple of years later until Lebanon is in internal conflict. At this time, Marcel Khalife has created an ensemble that makes its debut on 1975, in the thick of the Lebanese civil war (1975-1990). (Marcel Khalife, 2008) Even with the threat of concert hall bombings, Marcel and his ensemble continue the concert. This becomes the first proof of Marcel Khalife’s political stance. He even admits to have a “rebel’s soul”. (Marcel, 2008) Marcel Khalife’s public success has been constantly on the rise ever since his first public appearance. There are a couple of things that have contributed to his success. First of all, he is known for his radical and avant-garde compositions from oud concertos, Arab chorales, to novel oud techniques. (Colla, Elliott and Robert Blecher, 1996) Especially at a time where his home country is struggling to redefine itself, these new innovations must have caught the attention of the nation and its people as a source of inspiration; not to mention his persistence in letting his music and voice heard. Marcel Khalife is also known for his undying support of the Palestinians evident in his constant collaboration with Palestinian poet, Mahmoud Darwish. In addition, this can also be seen in his song Wa Ana Amshi (I Walk) by Mahmoud Darwish in 1985, which has been used as an unofficial Palestinian national day anthem. He has also refused the Womadelaide Music Festival in 2001 on behalf of Palestine and its people because an artist, who has been sponsored by the Israeli government, is participating in the same event. (Statement by AAAN, 1996) Ever since Marcel Khalife has witnessed their hardships in Palestinian refugee camps in Beirut, he has believed and has sworn to support their cause. (Marcel Khalife, 2008) Another characteristic that Marcel Khalife is known for are the controversies that he is involved in fighting for freedom of musical expression, artistic expression, and expression in general. The most famous and most on going controversy is that of his song, Ana Yusuf ya Abi (Oh My Father, I Am Yusif), from the poem written by Mahmoud Darwish and released in 1990. (Mahmoud Darwish’s Poem, 1996) He has been prosecuted by Sunni Muslim clerics in Lebanon three times in 1996, 1999, and 2003 because the song included two verses of the Qur’an. (Marcel Khalife, 2008) Because of this, Marcel Khalife is charged with blasphemy and is accused of mocking religious values. Another incident is his banishment from Tunisia because he has made a dedication on behalf of Arab prisoners in Israeli and Arab prisons. (Marcel Khalife, 2008) It is this Marxist ideal that makes him very different from Umm Kulthum, because he is not subject to just one country but to a belief that reaches so many. Even until today, Marcel Khalife’s strong convictions about his music in service to all humanity and the right to a voice heard still make him subject to harsh accusations and controversies in the Arab world and in his country, Lebanon.
A Look at the Political and Controversial Music
Most of Marcel Khalife’s songs have always had a political message or political protest. Here one will see that in both Wa Ana Amshi and Ana Yusuf ya Abi, the political source stems from the political environment of which these compositions are made, not just from the political ideals of the composer. Both pieces are composed by Mahmoud Darwish, who frequently collaborates with Marcel Khalife. A poet how is born and raised in Galilee and advocates for the freedom and peace of Palestine. (Mahmoud Darwish Biography, 2008) Imagine these songs produced from a politically dense environment. Not only can one find the message of these songs, but also those issues that the artist is dealing with. In Wa Ana Amshi, the voice of resistance is obvious. From the repetition of “I walk and I walk”, it puts emphasis on the enduring nature and persistence as the empirical message, shown in the following lyrics. Even so, who or what is this piece resisting against? The answer can only be found in the context it is written. As it is mentioned before, this piece is composed by Mahmoud Darwish and is released in 1985. The poem where this song is derived from is written with politics mind. Darwish, being a Galilean, is very much affected by the conflict between Israel and Palestine. Especially at that time where the memory of the siege of the Gaza strip is still exists, there is not doubt that the wounds inflicted have not healed. How does Marcel Khalife fit in this situation? Marcel Khalife has committed himself to support Palestine in their quest to the regain their identity and to reclaim their lost land, ever since his encounter with the Palestinian refugees in Beirut. (Marcel Khalife, 2008) Any chance that he can show support or aid their cause; he does not hesitate to do so as seen in the 2001 Womadelaide controversy.
In the same token, the controversy revolving Ana Yusuf ya Abi was not due to political controversy, but a religious one that slowly turns political. This polemic dispute is rooted in the direct usage of Quranic passage, Sura 12 Ayat 4, in Darwish's poem that is utilized in his song. Marcel is charged with disrespecting religion and blasphemy because of the presence of the Qur’anic quote in his song. (Marcel Khalife, 2008) This creates a bit of an upheaval in Lebanon since some writers, theologists, and the public do not see any offence, while others hold a different opinion. In the end, Marcel Khalife’s charge is revoked allowing him to continue pushing the musical, religious and political boundaries.
For Umm Kulthum, tearing through musical and territorial boundaries unifies nations. In her case, there is no controversy involved with her piece that is considered to have elevated Arab music. To put into context, this is sung just after the defeat of Egypt against Israel in the Six Day War where Umm Kulthum tours the Arab world to raise money for Egypt and to raise awareness. (Danielson, 1997) Al Atlal (The Ruins) becomes almost iconic in these tours for it is subtle and symbolic in its presentation of political events that has happened in Egypt as portrayed in the following: Al Atlal Lyrics It is known that Umm Kulthum is a devout Muslim and a proud Egyptian, which shows in this display. (Danielson, 1997) Her beliefs and ideals are expressed through her music. With the Arab nations as her audience, she has put into the spotlight the unfortunate state of her country and in turn has convinced these nations to unify their efforts to one cause. It is unprecedented at her time that a musician can ignite group solidarity and a realization of Arab identity.
A Closer Look
This event that has happened to Egypt, their defeat in war, has lead and aided in this new realization of identity. Egypt has been flooded with Western influences from years of foreign rule and with that comes Western technologies and beliefs. The introduction of gramophones, cassettes, and the radio has given Umm Kulthum the tools to reach a bigger number of audiences throughout the Arab world. (Racy, 1976) In the same way, this has also enabled Arab nations to connect and interact through these innovations. A renewed Arab identity emerges as a result. Racy, 1976) Egypt experiences a new sense of identity as well from this, because it becomes the central hub of these Arab connections and interactions. From having such a long history of foreign rule, this new identity of being the Arab nations’ key to the future, Arab connection, and to the west must be refreshing. This definitely suits the Egypt that Umm Kulthum fights for and is so proud of. In the same way, Lebanon has also seen its share of foreign rule and has reached a point where it has integrated with the West. During the rising success of Marcel Khalife, Lebanon is still trying to find stability. In the same way that Marcel Khalife has continued to fight for his beliefs and ideals, so has Lebanon. Now, it has also become a hub for Arab nations to connect and interact in the later twentieth century behind Egypt. It is even coined as the “Switzerland of the East” and becomes the most democratic Arab country. (Switzerland of the East, 2005) (History of Lebanon, 2008)
It is true that Umm Kulthum and Marcel Khalife are completely different figures that cannot even be compared. Umm Kulthum is a set figure, a patriotic Egyptian, while Marcel Khalife is very Marxist that he is not subject to a specific culture, ethnicity, and religion. So why is there a comparison between these two artists? The comparison is not so much about the artists themselves but their and their music’s significance to their country’s post colonial issues of identity. It is interesting to discover since both countries have started and developed almost similarly. Likewise, both countries try to redefine themselves in their respective times. In the case of Egypt, no other Egyptian artist has achieved that of Umm Kulthum’s. There has been no other artist that is so politically involved and ingrained like her. Could it be that there is no need for a figure to help in political matters because political instability is beginning to balance itself? It could also be a coincidence that after Umm Kulthum’s death, Egypt’s political state slowly stabilized and is finally now in Egypt’s hands. Its identity is set. One cannot say the same for Lebanon. As Marcel Khalife still tours around the world and voices his many strong beliefs, Lebanon is also making its voice heard. Haplessly, Lebanon falls again into political turmoil and instability. Because of this, Lebanon is still trying to rebuild and rediscover country, people, and identity.
How does the political involvement of Umm Kulthum and Marcel Khalife relate to post colonial issues of identity? First of all, it is a reaction. The reaction of both artists to the political threat of their countries parallels their reaction and concern for their country’s identity. Much in the same way how Marcel Khalife continues to advocate for peace and freedom, his country also continues to fight for the same ideals. Second, is that these involvements are a reflection. This is just like how existence of Western musical instruments and musical concepts in the music of Umm Kulthum and Marcel Khalife are a reflection of the many foreign rulers and influences their countries has encountered; predominantly from the West. The greatest tool and manifestation of these are their music.
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