MofA Weeks 10, 11

Music and the metaphysical: discourse and practice

• Musical discourse (theoretical or practical)
  • Discourse concerning the interaction of music within a broader metaphysical domain (from the psyche to the universe, microcosm to macrocosm).
  • All is framed within Islamicate civilization, so typically bears the imprint of Islam, but transcends Islamic theology and mysticism to include other religious sources, as well as general philosophy, connected to philosophical traditions of the region (from ancient Sumerian and Egyptian to more recent Hellenistic, Gnostic, Christian, and Islamic sources) and beyond.
  • Moves beyond the science of music and music theory: physics of sound, perception, tonal-temporal organization (we covered this already)
• Specific types of metaphysical discourse:
  • Socio-mythology of music: origins and association with mythical or sacred peoples and places
  • Ethics of music: religious discourse containing moral judgments upon (etically) musical practices, many of which are condemned (and a few of which are upheld)
  • Macrocosmic relations: association of music and musical structures (e.g. maqamat, instruments, strings of instruments) to: seasons, elements, zodiac, celestial spheres, numbers
  • Microcosmic effects: association to the body and mind/spirit: the four humors, emotions, spiritual states/stations of the Sufi...and the power of music to influence these, or connect to macrocosm (e.g. music therapies)
  • Specification of mystical-musical practices (sama`, Qur'anic recitation) and conditions on its performance
  • May be more or less theoretical: ranging from informal "ways of speaking" to formal treatises
• Relation to practice and experience: Discourses may be:
  • Descriptive: Distilled from practice and experience (e.g. Sufi theory of wajd)
  • Enriching: adding meaning to experience: layering metaphysical interpretations on musical practices (e.g. symbolism of the nay)
  • Prescriptive: Specifying practice, what to do or what not to do, how to "feel it" (e.g. discourses about music's legitimacy, what is halal or haram)
  • Detached and self-referential discourses with no clear relation to any other reality (e.g. discourses about the relation of oud strings to seasons)
• Note:
  • metaphysics of music is hard to disentangle from music theory - the two discourses are intertwined
  • similarly, metaphysical musical practice is hard to disentangle from musical practices generally
  • Further, as in the case of theory, metaphysical discourse's relation to practice is often ambiguous (for instance, some Muslim scholars condemned music even as it flourished at the Caliph's court!)

Overview of Islam

• Tawhid
• Islam, Iman, Ihsan
• Five pillars: Shahada, Prayer, Zakah, Sawm, Hajj
• Six beliefs: Allah, Angels, Prophets, Books, Decree, Judgment
• Textual sources: Qur'an and Hadith (from Sunna)
• Law (Shari`a), Love (Hubb)
• Shari`a - Tariqa - Haqiqa
• Zahir (outer form) - Batin (inner meaning)
• "Sunni - Shia" (not always such a clear divide....)
• Role of spiritual guide (murshid, shaykh) and saints
• Fard, Sunna, Sufi practices
• Sound: "Language Performance", Music/Vocalization
  • Much discourse about music's power and legitimacy hinges on terminological rather than sonic distinctions - subdividing what a distant observer might naively classify as "music" (centering on the role and status of the text, its meaning, and differentiation of contexts), and establishing separable classes on a non-musical basis:
    • musiqa (musiqi)
    • ghina' (singing)
    • tilawa (Qur'anic recitation)
    • qira'a (reading)
    • adhan (calling-to-prayer)
    • inshad (chanting)
    • dhikr (chanting Names of God, sometimes with movement)
    • ibtihalat (supplications)
    • sama` (spiritual audition, sometimes with movement)
  • but issues of musicality (melodicity, rhythmicity) are also important because they cross-cut these categories:
    • al-qira'a bil-alhan (reciting with melodies) controversy: how much melody is ok?
    • melodies or instruments reminiscent of court/art music (and associated activities: drinking, dancing...)
    • functional folksong - tends to be more acceptable

What is the metaphysical?

Defined in discourses, written and oral...especially in spheres of:

• Religion (din): for Islam, centered on Qur'an and Hadith
  • Kalam (theology): the nature of God.
  • Law ( Shari`) as established by Fiqh (sources: interpretation of Qur'an and Hadith, plus ijma` and qiyas/ijtihad ). Highly discursive. Multiple schools of law (madhahib) emerged, differentiating 5 categories:
    • Fard (obligatory)
    • Mustahabb (preferred)
    • Mubah (accepted)
    • Makruh (disliked)
    • Haram (forbidden)
• Philosophy (falsafah): informed mainly by Greek ideas and treatises - from Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus, etc. and including scientific texts by Euclid, Aristoxenus (note that from the ancient Greek period through the Enlightenment science and philosophy were not not sharply differentiated)
• Mysticism, theosophy (tasawwuf)
  • Speculation (ma`rifa, theosophy)
  • Practice (adab, specification of proper behavior)

Polemical discourses on music's legitimacy: is music haram or halal?

• Islamic religious (metaphysical) discourse concerning music's legitimacy, as an entertainment/artistic practice, or as a spiritual practice
  • Secular practice (entertainment/art) of ghina - issue of haram (forbidden) or halal (accepted)
  • Spiritual practices, including tilawa (Qur'anic recitation), sama` (spiritual audition), dhikr(chanting Names of God), inshad (religious-poetic chant) - issue of bid`a (innovation).
  • Note that the latter (spiritual) is almost never called "music" or "singing" in local languages - use of such terms must be considered "etic".
• Sacred Muslim sources
  • Qur'an: no clear verdict; verses are subject to highly subjective interpretation (e.g. Luqman 31:6 as anti-music, Fatir 35:1 as pro-music, Al Zumar 39:18 as pro-music)
  • Hadith: evidence can be brought on either side, e.g.:
    • Bukhari :: Book 2 :: Volume 15 :: Hadith 72. Narrated Aisha: Abu Bakr came to my house while two small Ansari girls were singing beside me the stories of the Ansar concerning the Day of Buath. And they were not singers. Abu Bakr said protestingly, "Musical instruments of Satan in the house of Allah's Apostle !" It happened on the 'Id day and Allah's Apostle said, "O Abu Bakr! There is an 'Id for every nation and this is our 'Id." (which has been marshalled as evidence for both sides), or
    • Sunan Ibn Majah, Chapter No. 11, The Chapters on Marriage, Hadith No: 1901: I was with Ibn Umar, and he heard the sound of a drum, so he put his fingers in his ears and turned away. He did that three times, then he said: "This is what I saw the Messenger of Allah (saw) do.' ", or
    • Sunan Abi Dawud » Book of General Behavior (Kitab Al-Adab), 43:60: Narrated Abdullah ibn Umar: Nafi' said: Ibn Umar heard a pipe, put his fingers in his ears and went away from the road. He said to me: Are you hearing anything? I said: No. He said: He then took his fingers out of his ears and said: I was with the Prophet (ﷺ), and he heard like this and he did like this. AbuAli al-Lu'lu said: I heard AbuDawud say: This is a rejected tradition.
    • For next time, locate a relevant hadith in the canonical Hadith collections: e.g. see...
      • http://ahadith.co.uk/
      • https://sunnah.com/
      • http://www.quranexplorer.com/Hadith/
• Polemic on music and sama` among Muslim scholars:
  • Debate arises over whether to adopt a conservative position ("preventive ban") or place responsibility on the music user (according to principle of niyya, intention)
  • Ibn Abi al-Dunya (d. 894): In his Dhamm al-malahi, condemns music, ma`azif (instruments), and especially singing girls (qiyan) as a form of illegal malahi (entertainment), a diversion from piety.
  • Many authors condemn stringed instruments (linked to secular music and its contexts), but accept percussion; sometimes the flutes (e.g. nay) are also acceptable. Or they condemn mixed gender gatherings, or singing girls (qiyan, jawari).
  • sober work and travel songs, old Beduin songs, and religious recitations are typically accepted.
  • Sufi authors often allow sama` (spiritual audition), subject to conditions (place, time, people -makan, zaman, ikhwan) but condemn secular music, e.g.:
    • "Listening [sama`] is a power that creates divine influence which stirs the heart to seek Allah". Dhu'l-Nun al-Misri (9th century Sufi)
    • "Music does not produce in the heart what is not in it; hence it should be forbidden for those who are subject to mere intoxication". Abu Sulaiman al-Darani (d. ca. 820)
  • All four legal schools reject music as entertainment when there is no spiritual purpose.
  • Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali (d. 1111), the great theologian who reconciled Sufi practices with the Muslim mainstream: Music is to be used for spiritual purposes, to remember God. Legitimacy is related to the listener, and context. Music evokes what is in the soul, fans the flames of love. Importance of context: ikhwan, zaman, makan (brethren, time, place). Acceptable music: pilgrimage songs, battle songs, certain lamentations, spiritual applications. Unacceptable music: female singers in public; forbidden instruments (strings); improper lyrics; when listener is ruled by lust; listening to music for its own sake.
• The debate continues: there is a rich lode of contemporary sama` polemic on the web, both pro and con. I've compiled some of it here (you'll need to download the html and corresponding folder to see these). Try to find your own examples and submit on eClass...

Positions:

Relatively moderate positions towards music: music is allowable, under proper conditions – music is conditionally halal, e.g. Egyptian Shaykh Yusuf al-Qaradawi: “Singing is no more than melodious words; if these are good, singing is considered good; but if they are bad, such singing is deemed bad.”. Shaykh Mohamed el-Helbawy took the same position.

• Qaradawi[1][2]
• Music & Singing
• Is music prohibited in Islam?
• al-Ghazali on music (read from p. 199)(we'll encounter him again below)
• Fiqh of Music

Relatively negative position of Salafi reformists: music leads one away from God, often is associated with forbidden things (sex, alcohol) that lead one further into the forbidden, therefore: music is haram (forbidden) – “the Devil’s Qur’an”. Even if there is possible good, the bad outweighs the good, and as there are hadith against it, music ought to be banned.

• American Sheikh Abu Amaar Yasir Qadhi[3])
• How and why music became haram?
• Some Mistakes Of Yusuf Al-Qaradawi
• The Islamic ruling on Music and Singing by Abu Bilal Mustafa al-Kanadialso in wiki format
• Hypocrisy in the heart
• Musical instruments

Music in Arabic metaphysical discourse

Considerations

• • Metaphysics: beyond physics. However, note that Arabic writings do not always separate the science of musical sound (physics) from metaphysical speculation (as we have done in this course).
  • Such discourse stands in an ambiguous relation to musical practice and experience; it is a quasi-autonomous discourse.
  • Ethical/cosmological/therapeutic linkages via musical harmony (microcosm <-- music --> macrocosm).
  • Sources:
    • Ancient Babylonia, Egypt, India
    • Jewish and Christian thought (Gnostics, others)
    • Greek philosophy (Pythagoreans, Plato, Aristotle): Everything is Number (arithmetic) as foundation of all harmony: connected to the physical, spiritual, musical.Doctrine of ethos. Cosmology: elements of the body (four humors: blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile), elements of nature (earth, fire, air, water), seasons, astrological constellations.
    • Hellenistic trends (Gnostics, neo-Platonists following Plotinus): The One (beyond Being), and its successive Emanations: Nous (Intellect, Archetypal Forms), World Soul (Intermediary); Phenomenal world (corporeal, conflicted); Harmony of the Spheres.

Philosophers

• • Ya`qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi (d. 870), "philosopher of the Arabs" (he was of Arabian origin).
    • Wrote 13 treatises on music, of which six survive.
    • Music is one of the four mathematical sciences (geometry, astronomy, arithmetic, music).
    • Kindi's philosophy displays ethical, cosmological, therapeutic approaches to music.
    • Generalized theory of harmony: Music is linked to the universe through harmony, governing its macro- and microcosmic effects.
    • Networks of correspondences: four strings of the oud (instrument of the philosophers), modes, rhythms, emotions, 4 elements, 4 humors, 4 colors, 4 seasons. Cosmic correspondences according to al-Kindi (see chart in Farmer, p. 98).
    • 7 notes of the scale are related to planets. 12 devices of the oud (strings, frets, pegs) are related to 12 signs of the zodiac. Instruments create harmony between soul and universe.
  • The Ikhwan al-Safa (Basra, Iraq, 10th century) Early Ismaili group of thinkers.
    • Provide a philosophical-scientific treatment of music (Fifth Epistle) within a comprehensive encyclopedia work.
    • Note the prominent position of music in their division of scientific knowledge[4]
    • Music reflects harmony of the universe, as sounded in the harmony of the spheres (with integer ratios corresponding to Pythagorean musical intervals), and is related to astrology.
    • Music also helps man to achieve spiritual equilibrium, creating inner harmony and fostering healing by balancing the four humors. Cosmic correspondences according to the Ikhwan al-Safa See chart Farmer, p. 105.
    • Music can be used for healing, and for instilling morality.
  • al-Farabi (d. 950). Aristotelian; less concerned with cosmic correspondences. Doctrines of healing and ethos continue however. Music influences body and soul.
  • Ibn Sina (d. 1037). Rejected cosmological and astrological theories, but embraced medical-musical ones. Rhythm indicates health or illness. Musical cures via 8 rhythmic modes. Melodic modes are associated with times of day, to increase influence.

Sufis (mystics)

... including theologians, theosophers (Sufi philosophers), and shaykhs offer several kinds of work: (a) theories of music's influence; (b) practical manuals for proper use of music; (c) defenses against critics of musical ritual.

Music, generally referred to in this context as "sama`" (including a range of language performance such as Qur'anic recitation), is often a topic of their treatises. Musical experience is linked to a theory of spiritual "states" (ahwal) and stations (maqamat - not to be confused with the musical kind!).

Sufi writers tend towards Islamic-spiritual interpretations of music, with some inflections from philosophy: linking it to Islamic cosmology, but also providing practical advice, and frequently defending sama` against its critics (as opposed to the more speculative Greek-influenced philosophers)

• • Basic insight: musical experience (sama`), sometimes performative (chant; dhikr), sometimes with movement, provides insights into Divine Reality, brings one into awareness of God, enhances remembrance (dhikr), and raises one's spiritual level.
  • Music reminds us of melodies heard in pre-eternity (Alam al-Azali) thereby stirring remembrance (dhikr)
  • Sufi interpretations of the nay, its micro- and macro-cosmic significances: 7 holes, 7 heavens, 7 planets; 9 holes, human body; the voice that cannot speak
  • Correspondence theory: mode (maqam) - mood - season - disease
  • Music is linked to the Sufi psychology of states and stations (ahwal and maqamat) leading towards reunion with God
  • Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali (d. 1111). al-Ghazzali was a theologian and Anti-philosopher (famous work: Tahafut al-Falasifa, the Incoherence of the Philosophers), who later turned to Sufism as a refuge from doubt (as expressed in his al-Munqidh min al-Dalal, Deliverance from Error), who is well-known for reconciling legalistic and mystical Islam. Al-Ghazzali is generally recognized as the greatest theologian of his era. He links music to remembrance (dhikr), recognizing the role of musically-generated ecstasy in causing man to worship God. Music cannot be unconditionally supported; it is a neutral force, evoking what is already in the listener's soul. For some, music will stir greater longing and love for God. For others, music will only create a longing for the created world. Poetry has a special role in generating ecstasy (he provides an interesting argument that the Qur'an, though more sacred, is too well-known to stir ecstasy). Calls attention to danger of hypocrisy, importance of proper listening conditions -- ikhwan, makan, zaman (people, place, time) -- in legitimizing musical worship.
    Treated music in a length section within his monumental Ihya' `Ulum al-Din (Revivification of the Religious Sciences)(translation by D. Macdonald published in The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland [5][6][7] -- read his theoretical introduction to the topic; there follows a long discourse outlining proper conditions for music in spirituality, and defending against critics); he summarized the music chapter in Persian in another work The Alchemy of Happiness, Chapter 5.
    
  • Ahmad al-Ghazzali (d. 1121), younger brother of Abu Hamid: mystical interpretation of music:

“The tambourine is a reference to the cycle of existing things; the skin which is fitted on to it is a reference to the absolute existence, the striking on the tambourine is a reference to the descent of divine inspiration from the innermost arcana upon general existence to bring forth the things pertaining to the essence from the interior to the exterior...And the voice of the singer is a reference to the divine life which comes down... The flute is a reference to the human essence... and the breath which penetrates the flute is a reference to the light of Allah (Exalted is He!) penetrating the reed of man's essence... And the dancing is a reference to the circling of the spirit round the cycle of existing things on account of receiving the effects of the unveilings of the revelations; and this is the state of the gnostic...And his leaping up is a reference to his being drawn from the human station to the unitive station and to existing things acquiring from him spiritual effects and illuminative helps...Then when he is detached from what is other than Allah...he takes off his clothing...Then if he rises to a higher station and the singer is speaking in a lower station ... he takes someone else and circles with him that their states may be united and his bond may be loosed. Then when he becomes thirsty and ask for a drink of water, it indicates that he is overpowered.., and he has returned to the station of the body, since the station of the spirit is [that of] getting nourishment from the unseen”

• • al-Kalabadhi's "Doctrine of the Sufis" (10th century); section on music and audition.
  • al-Qushayri's Epistle on Sufism (Risala). Qushayri's treatise is one of the most famous and complete; see theory of maqamat from p. 111, and sama` from p. 342. We're lucky to have this translation by renowned Sufi scholar Alexander Knysh.
  • al-Hujwiri's Kashf al-Mahjub (Revelation of the unseen), with a section on music (sama`) (written in Persian; 11th century)
  • Muhiy al-Din Ibn Arabi (12th-13th centuries): Greatest of the theosophists. Soundless sama` vs. sounded (divine, spiritual, natural); listeners hearing with the (lower) soul vs. listeners hearing with the (higher) mind.
  • Abu al-Najib al-Suhrawardi (1097–1168): wrote a manual for sama`, Kitab adab al-muridin (A Sufi rule for novices)
  • Ordinary Sufi discourse: musical ecstasy (sometimes called tarab) is considered suitable for spiritual purposes, relabeled as "wajd" (finding) or "nashwa ruhiyya" (spiritual refreshment). See my paper "Tarab in the Mystic Sufi Chant of Egypt", in: Colors of Enchantment: Visual and Performing Arts of the Middle East, edited by Sherifa Zuhur. American University in Cairo Press, 2001, pp. 233-269, and associated presentation.

Music in spiritual Muslim poetry

• Poetry is the vehicle par excellence for religious expression in Islam, but especially in tasawwuf (Islamic mysticism, or Sufism)
• Poetry is used in performance, as song text, and is foundational for sama`
• But poetry also represents music directly, as in these examples, where instruments and sounds serve as metaphors for higher spiritual values and states they evoke:
  • The opening of Rumi's Mathnawi
  • Ibn Arabi's Tarjuman al-Ashwaq
• In a second level of redirection, such poetry can be re-embedded in performance, as in this performance by Shaykh Yasin al-Tuhami of Egypt (go to 6:52).
• Besides music, a core theme of all Sufi poetry is spiritual love (sometimes expressed as praise for the Beloved, mainly Prophet or Saint), sometimes with attendant metaphors of intoxication, earthly love, and dance - precisely what is forbidden by Law (shari`a) is reinterpreted by the Sufis as metaphors for the Divine

Music in metaphysical (religious) practice: Islam and Coptic Christianity

• Linked to occasions; in the case of Islam these include:
  • Life cycle occasions (birth, circumcision, marriage, death)
  • Annual occasions (Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr, Hajj, Eid al-Adha, Mawlid)
  • Weekly or daily occasions (corporate prayers)
• Music in Islamic practice in Arabic-speaking regions
  • Mainstream Islamic practice ("normative", but will vary with region and community)
  • Mystical (Sufi) practice: characteristic of more peripheral communities and groups: sometimes voluntary, other times ascribed.
    • dhikr or hadra
    • mawalid
    • Sama`
    • Spiritual role of tarab: generating state of hal (spiritual trance) or nashwa ruhiyya (spiritual refreshment)
• Music in Church practices in Arabic-speaking regions: The Copts of Egypt
  • Alhan examples (liturgical; arranged by George Kyrillos)
  • Example of a tartila (non-liturgical, popular)
  • Similar types exist in Syrian and Maronite churches.
  • Note any similarities to other music of the Arab world?
  • The alhan and other liturgical demonstrate long-standing longitudinal continuity; Coptic is really "demotic", the latest form of ancient Egyptian language. George Kyrillos claimsm continuity even to the pre-Christian era. Coptic and Byzantine forms certainly entered into the "mix" catalyzed by Arab conquests, that became "Arab music" today.
  • Non-liturgical forms are more likely to be influenced by popular music, and thus demonstrate horizontal continuity, though filtered by religious ideology restricting instruments, words, dress, etc.
• NB: Throughout, we are applying the word "music" (etic, not emic description)

Relation between religious and secular musics

• Vocal training in Qur'anic recitation, adhan, Sufi ritual imparts certain qualities as well as identifying good voices.
• Similar processes in church hymn singing
• Ambiguities: repertoire, texts, "shaykh" and "mutrib" (e.g. Shaykh Sayyid Darwish), tarab/emotional interactions
• "Min al-Mashayikh" as criterion for asala (authenticity)
• The 20th century bifurcation between religious and non-religious sonic types